Observation is a primary method of collecting data by human, mechanical, electrical or electronic means. The researcher may or may not have direct contact or communication with the people whose behaviour is being recorded. Observation techniques can be part of qualitative research as well as quantitative research techniques. There are six different ways of classifying observation methods:
- participant and nonparticipant observation, depending on whether the researcher chooses to be part of the situation s/he is studying (e.g. studying social interaction of tour groups by being a tour participant would be participant observation)
- obtrusive and unobtrusive (or physical trace) observation, depending on whether the subjects being studied can detect the observation (e.g. hidden microphones or cameras observing behaviour and doing garbage audits to determine consumption are examples of unobtrusive observation)
- observation in natural or contrived settings, whereby the behaviour is observed (usually unobtrusively) when and where it is occurring, while in the contrived setting the situation is recreated to speed up the behaviour
- disguised and non-disguised observation, depending on whether the subjects being observed are aware that they are being studied or not. In disguised observation, the researcher may pretend to be someone else, e.g. "just" another tourist participating in the tour group, as opposed to the other tour group members being aware that s/he is a researcher.
- Structured and unstructured observation, which refers to guidelines or a checklist being used for the aspects of the behaviour that are to be recorded; for instance, noting who starts the introductory conversation between two tour group members and what specific words are used by way of introduction.
- Direct and indirect observation, depending on whether the behaviour is being observed as it occurs or after the fact, as in the case of TV viewing, for instance, where choice of program and channel flicking can all be recorded for later analysis.
The data being collected can concern an event or other occurrence rather than people. Although usually thought of as the observation of nonverbal behaviour, this is not necessarily true since comments and/or the exchange between people can also be recorded and would be considered part of this technique, as long as the investigator does not control or in some way manipulate what is being said. For instance, staging a typical sales encounter and recording the responses and reactions by the salesperson would qualify as observation technique.
One distinct advantage of the observation technique is that it records actual behaviour, not what people say they said/did or believe they will say/do. Indeed, sometimes their actual recorded behaviour can be compared to their statements, to check for the validity of their responses. Especially when dealing with behaviour that might be subject to certain social pressure (for example, people deem themselves to be tolerant when their actual behaviour may be much less so) or conditioned responses (for example, people say they value nutrition, but will pick foods they know to be fatty or sweet), the observation technique can provide greater insights than an actual survey technique.
On the other hand, the observation technique does not provide us with any insights into what the person may be thinking or what might motivate a given behaviour/comment. This type of information can only be obtained by asking people directly or indirectly.
When people are being observed, whether they are aware of it or not, ethical issues arise that must be considered by the researcher. Particularly with advances in technology, cameras and microphones have made it possible to gather a significant amount of information about verbal and non-verbal behaviour of customers as well as employees that might easily be considered to be an invasion of privacy or abusive, particularly if the subject is unaware of being observed, yet the information is used to make decisions that impact him/her.
Published on 6 May 2022 by Pritha Bhandari. Revised on 19 August 2022. Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where you
record the behaviours of your research subjects in real-world settings. You avoid interfering with or influencing any variables in a naturalistic observation. You can think of naturalistic observation as ‘people watching’ with a purpose. In naturalistic observations, you study your research subjects in their own environments to explore their behaviours without any outside influence or control. It’s a research method used in field studies. Traditionally, naturalistic observation studies have been used by animal researchers, psychologists,
ethnographers, and anthropologists. Naturalistic observations are helpful as a hypothesis-generating approach, because you gather rich information that can inspire further research. Based on his naturalistic observations, he believed that these birds imprinted on the first potential parent in their surroundings, and they quickly learned to follow them and their actions. He later devised
experiments to test the hypothesis and found clear support for his theory. Naturalistic observation is especially valuable for studying behaviours and actions that may not be replicable in controlled lab settings. Naturalistic observations can be:What is naturalistic observation?
Field
Example
Child development
You track language development in a child’s natural environment, their own home, with an audio recording device.
Consumer research
You study how shoppers navigate a supermarket and shop differently after a layout change.
Sports psychology
You triangulate reports of drug use among athletes with in-person observations.
Types of naturalistic observation methods
- Covert or overt: You either hide or reveal your identity as an observer to the participants you observe.
- Participant or non-participant: You participate in the activity or behaviour yourself, or you observe from the sidelines.
There are four main ways of using naturalistic observations.
Types of naturalistic observation| Participant observationNon-participant observation | |
| Subjects are unaware that you’re observing them, because telling them may affect their behaviours. You also immerse yourself in the activity you’re researching yourself. | You don’t inform or show participants you’re observing them. You observe participants from a distance without being involved. |
| Example: You study organisational practices in small startups by joining one as an employee. You don’t reveal that you’re a researcher, and you take notes on behavioural data in secret. | Example: You take video recordings of classroom activities to study as an observer. Participants are unaware they’re being observed because the cameras are placed discreetly. |
| You inform or make it clear to participants that you are observing them. You also participate in the activity you’re researching yourself. | Participants are aware you’re observing them. You observe participants from a distance without being involved. |
| Example: You join a startup as an intern and perform research there for your thesis. You participate in the organisation while studying their organisational practices with everyone’s knowledge. | Example: You join a classroom and study student behaviours without taking part in the activities yourself. It’s clear to your participants that you’re observing them. |
Importantly, all of these take place in naturalistic settings rather than experimental laboratory settings. While you may actively participate in some types of observations, you refrain from influencing others or interfering with the activities you are observing too much.
How to collect data
You can use a variety of data collection methods for naturalistic observations.
Audiovisual recordings
Nowadays, it’s common to collect observations through audio and video recordings so you can revisit them at a later stage or share them with other trained observers. It’s best to place these recording devices discreetly so your participants aren’t distracted by them.
However, make sure you receive informed consent in a written format from each participant prior to recording them.
Example: Audiovisual recordingsYou place video cameras in a school playground to study the frequency and type of interactions children have with their peers over time. You make sure these cameras are placed out of sight so that your research subjects don’t pay attention to them.Note-taking
You can take notes while conducting naturalistic observations. Note down anything that seems relevant or important to you based on your research topic and interests in an unstructured way.
Example: Note-takingYou observe social interactions and alcohol use in a college bar and take notes. You record your perceptions of research subjects’ beer consumption levels, their speech volume and frequency, their general demeanours, and anything else that sticks out.Tally counts
If you’re studying specific behaviours or events, it’s often helpful to make frequency counts of the number of times these occur during a certain time period. You can use a tally count to easily note down each instance that you observe in the moment.
Example: Tally countsYou focus on observing four university students in particular at a student bar. You study their alcohol use behaviours and record the number of drinks they consume during one visit.Data sampling
There’s a lot of information you can collect when you conduct research in natural, uncontrolled environments. To simplify your data collection, you’ll often use data sampling.
Data sampling allows you to narrow down the focus of your data recording to specific times or events.
Time sampling
You record observations only at specific times. These time intervals can be randomly selected (e.g., at 8:03, 10:34, 12:51) or systematic (e.g., every 2 hours). You record whether your behaviours of interest occur during these time periods.
Example: Time samplingYou observe the social behaviours of children in a classroom. You systematically observe and record all social behaviours for 5 minutes every 2 hours over a few days.Event sampling
You record observations only when specific events occur. You may use a tally count to note the frequency of the event or take notes each time you see the event occurring.
Example: Event samplingYou focus on cooperative behaviours between eight-year-olds in a classroom. During group activities, you observe and take notes every time you come across helping social behaviours between children.Advantages of naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation is a valuable tool because of its flexibility, external validity, and suitability for research topics that can’t be studied in a lab.
Flexibility
Because naturalistic observation is a non-experimental method, you’re not bound to strict procedures. You can avoid using rigid protocols and also change your methods midway if you need to.
Ecological validity
Naturalistic observations are particularly high in ecological validity, because you use real life environments instead of lab settings. People don’t always act in the same ways in and outside the lab. Your participants behave in more authentic ways when they are unaware they’re being observed.
Innovation
Naturalistic observations help you study topics that you can’t in the lab for ethical reasons. You can also use technology to record conversations, behaviours, or other noise, provided you have consent or it’s otherwise ethically permissible.
Disadvantages of naturalistic observation
The downsides of naturalistic observation include its lack of scientific control, ethical considerations, and potential for research bias from observers and subjects.
Lack of control
Since you perform research in natural environments, you can’t control the setting or any variables. Without this control, you won’t be able to draw conclusions about causal relationships. You also may not be able to replicate your findings in other contexts, with other people, or at other times.
Ethical considerations
Most people don’t want to be observed as they’re going about their day without their explicit consent or awareness. It’s important to always respect privacy and try to be unobtrusive. It’s also best to use naturalistic observations only in public situations where people expect they won’t be alone.
Note: Don’t record people without receiving written informed consent prior to the observations.Observer bias
Because you indirectly collect data, there’s always a risk of observer bias in naturalistic observations. Your perceptions and interpretations of behaviour may be influenced by your own experiences and inaccurately represent the truth. This type of bias is particularly likely to occur in participant observation methods.
Subject bias
When you observe subjects in their natural environment, they may sometimes be aware they’re being observed. As a result, they may change their behaviours to act in more socially desirable ways to confirm your expectations.
Frequently asked questions about naturalistic observation
Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favourably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys, but is most common in semi-structured interviews, unstructured interviews, and focus groups.
Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.
This type of bias in research can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behaviour accordingly.
How can I minimise observer bias in my research?
You can use several tactics to minimise observer bias.
- Use masking (blinding) to hide the purpose of your study from all observers.
- Triangulate your data with different data collection methods or sources.
- Use multiple observers and ensure inter-rater reliability.
- Train your observers to make sure data is consistently recorded between them.
- Standardise your observation procedures to make sure they are structured and clear.
Sources for this article
We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.
This Scribbr article
Bhandari, P. (19 August 2022). Naturalistic Observation | Definition, Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 13 October 2022, from //www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/naturalistic-observations/
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