Classical conditioning was first studied by physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In classical conditioning a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that naturally produces a behavior (the unconditioned response, or UR). As a result of this association, the previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same or similar response (the conditioned response, or CR).
Classically conditioned responses show extinction if the CS is repeatedly presented without the US. The CR may reappear later in a process known as spontaneous recovery.
Organisms may show stimulus generalization, in which stimuli similar to the CS may produce similar behaviors, or stimulus discrimination, in which the organism learns to differentiate between the CS and other similar stimuli.
Second-order conditioning occurs when a second CS is conditioned to a previously established CS.
Psychologist Edward Thorndike developed the law of effect: the idea that responses that are reinforced are “stamped in” by experience and thus occur more frequently, whereas responses that are punishing are “stamped out” and subsequently occur less frequently.
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) expanded on Thorndike’s ideas to develop a set of principles to explain operant conditioning.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting a something pleasant after the response, and negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or removing something unpleasant. Positive punishment weakens a response by presenting something unpleasant after the response, whereas negative punishment weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant.
Shaping is the process of guiding an organism’s behavior to the desired outcome through the use of reinforcers.
Reinforcement may be either partial or continuous. Partial-reinforcement schedules are determined by whether the reward is presented on the basis of the time that elapses between rewards (interval) or on the basis of the number of responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable) schedule.
Not all learning can be explained through the principles of classical and operant conditioning. Insight is the sudden understanding of the components of a problem that makes the solution apparent, and latent learning refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.
Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of those behaviors is known as observational learning. Aggression, altruism, and many other behaviors are learned through observation.
Learning theories can and have been applied to change behaviors in many areas of everyday life. Some advertising uses classical conditioning to associate a pleasant response with a product.
Rewards are frequently and effectively used in education but must be carefully designed to be contingent on performance and to avoid undermining interest in the activity.
Social dilemmas, such as the prisoner’s dilemma, can be understood in terms of a desire to maximize one’s outcomes in a competitive relationship.
classical conditioning
learning to make an involuntary (reflex) response to a stimulus other than the original natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex.
- A type of learning first described by Ivan Pavlov
- The classical conditioning process begins when a stimulus elicits a response. This is known as an unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS).
- A US is something that elicits a natural, reflexive response. This response is called the unconditioned response (UR or UCR).
- Through repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus (CS), animals will come to associate the two stimuli together
- When the CS elicits a response without the US, a conditioned respnse (CR) occurs.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response.
- An element of classical
conditioning
- The classical conditioning process begins when a stimulus elicits a response, which is nown as an unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS).
- Something that elicits a natural, reflexive, response. In the classic Pavlovian paradigm, it is food.
- Food elicits the natural, involuntary response of salivation, which is called the unconditioned response (UR or UCR)
unconditioned response (UCR)
an involuntary (reflex) response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus.
- An element of classical conditioning
- In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus ( A neutral stimulus, like a bell) is paired with an uncodnitioned stimulus ( a stimulus that elicts a reflexive response, such as food eliciting salivation).
-This reflexive response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus is the unconditioned response
neutral stimulus (NS)
stimulus that has no effect on the desired response.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus.
- element of classical conditioning
-In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (an originally neutral stimulus, like a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus( a stimulus that elicits a relexive response, such as food eliciting salivation)
- Eventually the conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell) alone elicits a conditioned response (e.g., salivation). This stage is also called aquisition, since the organism has acquired a new behavior.
conditioned response (CR)
leaned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.
stimulus generalization
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.
Often animals conditioned to respond to a certain stimulus will also respond to a similar stimuli, although the response is usually smaller in magnitude.
For example, dogs may salivate to a number of bells, not just the one with which they were trained.
This tendency to respond to a similar conditioned stimuli is known as generalization.
Discrimination, responding only to specific conditioned stimuli instead of similar conditioned simuli, is the opposite of generalization.
stimulus discrimination
the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus it never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Occurs when an organism responds only to specific conditioned stimuli instead of similar conditioned stimuli.
For example, to train dogs to discriminate between different bekks, we would repeatedly pair the original bell with the presentation of food, but we would not intermixed trials where we presented other bells that we did not pair with food.
Generalization, responding only to similar conditioned stimuli instead of only a specific conditioned stimuli, is the opposite of discrimination.
Aversive conditioning
Classically conditioning an organism to have an aversive response to a conditioned stimuli
For example, to stop biting their nails, some people paint them with horrible-tasting materials. Nail biting therefore becomes associated with a terrible taste, and the biting should cease.
extinction
the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).
- Extinction has taken place when conditioned stimulus no longer ekicits the conditioned response. Extinction is achieved by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus, thus breaking the association between the two.
- If one rings the bell over and over again and never feeds the dogs, the dogs will ultimately learn not to salivate when the bell rings.
reinforcer
any event or object that, when following a response, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.
- Sometimes after a classicaly conitioned response has been extinguished and no further training of the animals has taken place, the response briefly reappears upon presentation of the conditioned stimulus
higher-order conditioning
occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.
- once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible, briefly, to use that CS as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus
- by using a dog and a bell as our example, after the dog salivates to the bell (first-order conditioning), the bell can be paired repeatedly with a flash of light, and the dog will salivate to the light alone (second-order conditioning), even though the light has never been paired with food.
conditioned emotional response (CER)
emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.
vicarious conditioning
classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.
conditioned taste aversion
development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association.
biological preparedness
referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain association, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning.
stimulus substitution
original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together.
cognitive perspective
modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus.
learning
- a long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
-although learning is not the same as behavior, most psychologists accept that learning can best be measured through changes in behavior
ivan pavlov
- a russian physiologist who inadvertently discovered a kind of learning while studying digestion in dogs
- found that the dogs learned to pair the sounds in the environment where they were fed with the food that was given to them and began to salivate simply upon hearing the sounds
- Deduced the basic principle of classic conditioning. People and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (e.g., sounds) wiht stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses (e.g., food) and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one (e.g., salivate)
operant conditioning
the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.
a kind of learning based on the association of consequences with one's behaviors
Edward Thorndike was one of the first people to research this kind of learning. B. F. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning, and studied this form of learning over his entire career
a kind of learning based n the association of consequences with one's beaviors
Thorndike put forth the law of effect that states that if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase. however, if the consequences of a behavior are unpleasant, the S-R connection will weaken and the likelihood of the behavior will decrease
law of effect
law stating that if an actual is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.
Edward Thorndike, one of the first people to research operant conditioning, explained this kind of learning through the law of effect
law of effect states that if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase. however, if the consequences of a behavior are unpleasant, the S-R connection will weaken and the likelihood of the behavior will decrease
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
coined the term operant conditioning
best-known behaviorist psychologist
onvented a special contraption, aptly named a Skinner box, to use in his research of animal learning
a skinner box usually has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever to press or disk to peck in order to get the food
the food is called a reinforcer, and the process o giving the food is called reinforcement
operant
any behavior that is voluntary.
reinforcement
any event or stimulus that, when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.
element of operant conditioning
reinforcement is defined by its consequences; anything tht makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer. two kinds of reinforcement exist:
-positive(+) reinforcement referes to the addition of something pleasant
-negative(-) reinforcement refers to the removal of something unpleasant
for instance, if we give a rat in a skinner box food when it presses a lever, we are using a positive reinforcement. if we terminate a loud noise or shock in response to a press of the lever, we are using negative reinforcement
primary reinforcer
any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch.
Reinforces that are, in and of themselves, rewarding.
The include things like foor, water, and rest, whose natural properties are reinforcing
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.
Reinforcers that are rewarding because we have learned that they are reinforcing.
Things we have learned to value such as praise or the chance to play a video game.
positive reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus.
Element of operant conditioning
Reinforcement is defined by its consequences; anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer. Two kinds exist:
-positive(+) reinforcement referes to the addition of something pleasant
-negative(-) reinforcement
refers to the removal of something unpleasant
for instance, if we give a rat in a skinner box food when it presses a lever, we are using a positive reinforcement.
negative reinforcement
the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.
Element of operant conditioning
Reinforcement is defined by its consequences; anything that makes a behavior
more likely to occur is a reinforcer. Two kinds exist:
-positive(+) reinforcement referes to the addition of something pleasant
-negative(-) reinforcement refers to the removal of something unpleasant
For instance, if we terminate a loud noise or shock in response to a press of the lever, we are using negative reinforcement.
punishment
any event or object that, when following a response, makes the response less likely to happen again.
Element of operant conditioning
Affects behavior by using unpleasant consequences
By definition, punishment is anything that makes a behavior less likely
Two types of punishment:
-Positive (usually referred to as just "punishment") which is the addition of something unpleasant.
-Omission training or negative punishment, the removal of something pleasant.
If we were to give a rat an electric shock every time it touches the lever, we are using punishment. If we remove the rats food when it touches the lever, we are using omission training.
punishment by application
the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.
Element of operant conditioning
Affects behavior by adding unpleasant consequences
By definition, punishment is anything that makes a behavior less likely.
2
types of punishment
-Positive (usually referred to as just "punishment") which is the addition of something unpleasant.
-Omission training or negative punishment, the removal of something pleasant.
If we were to give a rat an electric shock every time it touches the lever, we are using positive punishment.
punishment by removal
the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus.
Element of operant conditioning
Affects behavior by using unpleasant consequences
By definition, punishment is anything that makes a behavior less likely
2 types of punishment
-Positive (usually referred to as just "punishment") which is the addition of something unpleasant.
-Omission training or negative punishment, the removal of something pleasant.
If we remove the rats food when it touches he lever, we are using omission training
successive approximations
small steps in behavior, one after the other, they lead to a particular goal behavior.
discrininative stimulus
any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement.
partial reinforcement effect
the tendency fora response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction.
continuous reinforcement
the reinforcement of each and every correct response.
fixed interval schedule is reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.
variable interval schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event.
fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same.
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.
learned taste aversions (Garcia Effect)
if you ingest an unusual fod or drink then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink
can result in powerful clasically conditioned avoidance responses on th basis of a single pairing
animals, including people, seem biologically prepared to associate strange tastes with feelings of sickness
instinctive drift
tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns.
behavior modification
the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.
token economy
type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens.
applied behavior analysis (ABA)
modern terms for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response.
biofeedback
using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control.
neurofeedback
form of biofeedback using brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior.
latent learning
learning that remains hidden until it's application becomes useful.
insight
the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly.
learned helplessness
the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures on the past.
observational learning
learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior.
learning/performance distinction
referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior.
habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. the event may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neural stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcer guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Reinforces the steps used to reach a desired behavior
For example, first the rat might be reinforced for going to the side of the box with the lever. Then we might reinforce the rat for touchING the lever with any part of its body. By rewarding approximations of the desired behavior, we increase the likelihood that the rat will stumble upon the flavor we want.
Chaining
Associated with operant conditioning
Teaching subjects to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward.
The goal of shaping is to mold a single behavior (e.g., a bar press by a rat); the goal in chaining is to link together a number of separate behaviors into a more competitive avtity (e.g., running am obstacle course).,
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
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