1) Job Satisfaction has been a major interest of behavioral scientists for many years. Show Locke (1976) estimated that over 3,000 studies has been published on job satisfaction by 1972; no indication that the trend has changed in the last 20 years (Edona e ka bo 40 years en slides e ne liber thot 20 years). Why has job satisfaction generated so much interest? The assumption is that if workers are satisfied with their jobs, they will perform better, have fewer absences, be less likely to quit, and generally feel better about themselves ( gje qe nuk osht always guaranteed). Me I pyt njerezit ne lidhje me their job attitudes I bjen qe po I pyt per highly personal and individualistic information pasiqe keto informata perveq qe informojne ne lidhje me job attitude te nje personi,gjithashtu edhe e reflktojne personalitetin e nje njeriu. I/O Psychologist marrin informata prej individeve ne lidhje me their job attitudes .Kjo lloj menyre pi bjen qe osht MICRO ORIENTATION. Job Attitudes are also of high importance since job attitudes affect personal and organizational functioning, which further can affect job attitudes. Eshte e vertete sepse nese ne kemi job satisfaction thus good job attitudes ne performojme shume ma mire personally, respektivisht edhe I kontibojme me shume ne punen tone. 2) HISTORY OF JOB ATTITUDES -Frederic Taylor (well known for his time-motion studies) attempted to streamline jobs by identifying unnecessary or ineffective job behaviors by observing people as they actually performed work. Taylor’s scientific management, four basic premises: 1. Finding the one ‘best way’ to perform the job (simplifying the job so that it could be more easily and quickly accomplished) 2. Systematic personnel selection and placement to match best worker to the job 3. Strict division of labor between management & workers (managers: plan, workers: accomplish the job) 4. Monetary incentives to attract and motivate workers to perform optimally Taylor assumed that if workers are provided with a decent job and wages linked to productivity, they would strive for peak performance ( sidoqofte researchers te hawthorne studies mendojne qe qito assumtions jon inaccurate pasiqe increased productivity cannot be achieved merely by linking workers pockets with money). -***Hawthorne Studies -Experiments conducted at Chicago Hawthrone works of the Western Electric Company (1930s) remain the most influential organizational research of all time. The intent was to invite a handful of employees to participate in various working condition tests to determine which conditions were most conducive to increased production .The results of these studies made behavioral scientists aware for the first time that worker behavior could be influenced by factors other than monetary incentives and the physical work environment. Hawthorne studies encompassed several studies and spanned more than a decade; however, here are discussed only the ILLUMINATION studies (1924), the RELAY ASSAMBLY TEST ROOM studies, and the BANK WIRING ROOM studies.( Posht po ju pershkruj ne detale qito tri studies edhe pse nuk e di san a duhen) A. Illumination studies-earliest studies. Studies began with a question about the relationship between worker productivity and the level of illumination in the work environment ( a po ju kujtohet shembulli qe I kan ndale dritat ne nje fabrike edhe I kan testu puntetoret sa po jon effective ne disa nivele te dritave? Ne kete example edhe pse work conditions jon ul (tu ju ndal driten) productivity asniher nuk osht ul). B. Relay Assembly Test Room studies (a.k.a the rest pause experiments)-the goal was to isolate and investigate the work behavior of small group of workers. The researchers chose to study the assembly of telephone relays. All operators were women and each operator could assemble about 500 relays each day. The formal purpose of this study was to explore the effects of work pauses on employee fatigue and productivity.In all cases productivity increased over baseline (researchers I kan testu punetoret me disa pauses,dmth kan provu me 10 min pushim ne mengjes dhe ne dreke ,15 min pushim ne mengjes dhe 10 ne dreke, ose 6 here nga 5 min pushim).In the nest phase studies were done investigating how worker productivity was influenced by shortening the work day; again productivity increased. C. Bank Wiring Room studies-because the issue that physical environment affects worker productivity failed, researchers were convinced that social processes have a tremendous influence on work output, and ,thus, they decided to study social influences in work groups ( qitu le te ju kujtohet shembulli me kompjutera qe na pat tregu Edona,nese grupi prej 14 vetave e ka pas per detyre me I prodhu 10 kompjutera ne ni dite te caktume,ata I kan prodhu vetem 10 edhepse per qata qe kan punu ma shume kan pas ma shume incentives,dmth grupi cdo dite ja ka caktu vetes ni output quota edhe ju kan permbajt qasaj). In the end the results were: 1. By singling out a small group of employees to participate in an exclusive trial, participants felt valued, special and important 2. The special attention they received gratified their ego and created a positive emotional bond with what they were trialing Overall conclusion was that employee attitudes and morale, and the influence of the informal work group were major determinants of worker productivity. Hoppock study-in contrast to Hawthorne studies, Hoppock research was entirely empirical, meaning data-based. Robert Hoppock developed newly scaling techniques to the study job satisfaction.He devised questions that people answered by referring to a scale ranging from 100 (extreme dissatisfaction) to 700 (extreme satisfaction).The result came up with 88% being satisfied with their job ( Edona e ka bo 85%).The most satisfied workers were in the professional, managerial & executive occupations. Hoppock’s research is significant for two reasons: 1. He developed one of the contemporary job attitude surveys & a template for data collection method 2. Hoppock’s results have been replicated repeatedly over the years (55 years), showing more or less the same consistency. In the very end, both the Hawthorne and Hoppock studies influenced the way I/O psychologists currently perceive job satisfaction: As a relatively enduring attitude shaped largely by social & interpersonal processes in the work environment. 3) THEORIES OF JOB SATISFACTION A. Two-Factor Theory-it is a descriptive theory that attempts to explain how job satisfaction is affected by the presence of extrinsic job factors such as salary and working conditions, and intrinsic factors such as responsibility and achievement. Harzberg et al. maintained that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are actually different concepts. They conducted an empirical study over 200 engineers and accountants about their jobs. Data collected indicated that good feelings were associated with such job related factors as achievement, responsibility, advancement, recognition. Bad feelings were associated with environmental conditions, supervision, salary, job security, interpersonal relationships at work, rules& practices etc. From this data, Herzberg proposed the Motivator-hygiene Theory, or the Two-factor Theory. This theory assumes everyone has two types of needs: Hygiene and Motivator needs. Hygiene needs not fulfilled => worker is dissatisfied. Fulfillment of such needs DOES NOT produce satisfaction, but rather a state of neutrality.E.g. Garbage not collected in the office (unhappy, bother you maybe, but not make you dissatisfied) Motivator needs not fulfilled => worker is not satisfied Motivator needs fulfilled => worker is satisfied. Herzberg’s view was that satisfaction & dissatisfaction are separate states. E.g., when workers obtain a sense of achievement and responsibility at work, they feel satisfied. However, when they do not obtain such a sense; they do not feel satisfied (which is different from feeling dissatisfied). According to Herzberg, one can feel satisfaction and dissatisfaction simultaneously because they are qualitatively different states! Herzberg was heavily criticized for the data collection he had made: a. Critical incidents procedure: where one is told to recall especially good and bad job-related incidents b. Because people want to present themselves in favorable light, they attribute the good incidents to themselves and their efforts (achievement, recognition, etc.) vs. attribute the bad incidents to other factors in the work environment (supervision, working conditions, etc.) As a result, motivators might have been more associated with satisfaction and hygiene factors more with dissatisfaction. Nonetheless, its lasting value: Focused attention on the motivators, such as achievement and responsibility, on worker attitudes. B. Comparison Theories of job satisfaction draw upon the concepts of needs and values. According to these theories, we examine what we obtain from our jobs and then determine if that
matches what we need or value. Comparison theories are process-oriented theories that ask workers to consider how much of some characteristics they have in their present job and how much of this characteristics they would like to have in their present job. Lawler (1973) incorporated the concept of attained vs. Need comparison theory assumes that people make rational and logical comparisons among what they have, what relevant others have, and what they need. However, psychologists have proven that people are not rational decision-makers. C. Opponent Process
Theory- Landy (1978) –proposed a unique theory of job satisfaction. Unlike the cognitive processes emphasized in comparison theories, Landy hypothesized that job attitudes stem from one’s physiological state. Opponent process theory assumes that when you experience an extreme emotional state, central nervous system mechanisms attempt to bring you back to a state of emotional equilibrium or neutrality. In returning to neutrality, the emotional
state may even surpass equilibrium and progress According to the theory, the magnitude of the opponent process changes over time, increasing each time it is activated. Consequently, upon receiving future salary increases, your eventual opponent process reaction will be considerably more negative than prior reactions. 4) HIGH PERFORMANCE CYCLE Locke and Latham (1990) proposed a integrated model of work motivation and satisfaction that they called High Performance Cycle. It utilizes the motivational framework of Goal-Setting Theory. This model predicts that high goals and high success expectations lead to high performance. High performance, in turn, produces rewards, satisfaction, and commitment to future goals. 5) THE MEASUREMENT OF JOB SATISFACTION Early job satisfaction researchers developed their own satisfaction questionnaires. This fact created problems in comparisons since for E.g., one measures satisfaction with supervisor & co-workers, while another one measured it with the work itself. Nowadays job satisfaction is measured as an overall attitude (belief, feeling or action tendency toward an object, in this case the job) toward the job, with the use of a self-report format (requires respondents to report their attitudes toward their jobs). Three of the most widely used standardized job satisfaction scales are: a) Faces Scale-is the oldest single-item scale by Kunin (1955). It requires respondents to indicate their job satisfaction by checking the human face most closely to their feelings about one’s job. Both female and male versions exist. It is acceptable as a global measure of job satisfaction. b) Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)- Weiss et. al (1967) devised a 100-item job satisfaction scale, divided in 5 dimensions (each has a 20 facet scales): Satisfaction with advancement Satisfaction with compensation Satisfaction with coworkers Satisfaction with responsibility Satisfaction with working conditions. It is an instrument with superior measurement properties (good reliability & validity). c) Job Descriptive Index (JDI)-it is developed specifically to measure satisfaction with different job components of facets. Smith et. al (1969) created JDI by systematically developing and testing over 100 potential items Respondents are required to check off the adjectives or phrases that describe their job It is based on 5 facet satisfaction scales: · Work itself · Pay · Promotion opportunities · Supervision · Co-workers The facets are not summoned into an overall job satisfaction score; rather, different scores for each facet .The most widely used measure of 6) CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION Job satisfaction varies as a function of personal characteristics (age, sex, race, perhaps even personality). E.g., the media often reports that women, black & older people are more or less satisfied than the typical young, white, male worker. GENDER: Two reviews of research on gender-related differences in global job satisfaction (Brush et. al., 1987; Smith et. al., 1991) No difference was found between the job satisfaction of men and women. The calculated correlation in both reviews was near 0.So far, researchers agree that any possible changes in sex differences are surrogates for differences in pays, education, tenure, and job level. RACE: Most research has focused on race differences in job satisfaction. Consistently, the data reveal that black workers are not as satisfied as white workers. Moch (1980) disentangled the relationship between race and job satisfaction in white, black and Hispanic samples by examining two potential reasons for racial differences in satisfaction: Cultural factors: Cultural differences in values and expectations (E.g., African American may value interpersonal relations at work more than white, because they have a cultural norm for affiliation) and Structural factors: Organizational factors that contribute to this differences (E.g., African American may not have ready access to mentoring relationships with (white) senior managers). AGE: Research shows that global job satisfaction does increase with age for all demographic groups including women and minorities. PERSONALITY: Findings that people with high internal Locus of Control (the belief that they are responsible for their own successes and failures), high self-esteem and a sense of accomplishment report higher job satisfaction. Personality correlate that has generated most interest is negative affectivity or the disposition of experiencing aversive emotional states, such as distress, agitation, pessimism and dissatisfaction. People high in negative affectivity expressed lower job satisfaction. IS JOB SATISFACTION A STABLE TRAIT?- This perspective assumes that, because of their personality, some people are more satisfied with their life (including their work) than other people. Arvey et. al (1989) an unusual study on job satisfaction assuming that people are genetically predisposed to seek out certain jobs and respond to them in particular ways. Results showed a 30% variation in job satisfaction due to genetic factors 7) JOB RELATED BEHAVIORS If an employee is satisfied with his/her job s/he will perform well, rarely be absent, and will not seek alternate employment. Performance-Research has consistently showed that job satisfaction does not cause job performance. However, later on Locke and his colleagues have even suggested an opposite link: High performance causes high satisfaction. Contemporary research argues that the link is moderated by other variables: Relationship between satisfaction and performance varies depending on certain conditions, such as: different types of workers, research settings and organizations. The only variable that has shown promise as a moderator between job satisfaction and performance is the Administration of Rewards. If high performing workers receive higher rewards, such as praise, promotion, or money, than poor performing workers, then the correlation between these two components should be positive. Withdrawal behavior is
defined as any type of behavior that removes the worker from the work setting, regardless of the circumstance provoking the behavior. For example, workers may be absent because they desire a day of leisure or because they are too ill to work. Withdrawal behaviors are extremely costly to the organization. Steers and Rhodes (1978) -proposed a model of attendance which has not a strong empirical support: Work attendance depends on both, satisfaction
with the job (as determined by various characteristics) and motivation to attend. Various factors, such as, personal values and ability to attend moderate these relations. E.g., A worker who has a high stressful job, with little variety and autonomy may be dissatisfied with her job, which may reduce her motivation to attend. She may also have Turnover-Mobley et. al (1978) – developed a model of the turnover process that attempts to explain the indirect and complex link between satisfaction and turnover. E.g., An employee who is
dissatisfied with his/her job, will think of quitting and will search for another job. If the search is favorable, the employee will develop an intention to quit (a type of Turnover sometimes can be quite functional; that is, these employees that leave are usually marginal or unsatisfied. Organization presumably benefits because these positions can be filled with more successful employees. Because of personal risks involved (i.e., not finding another job and meeting financial needs), turnover, more than absenteeism, is related to external market conditions. Thus, turnover is higher in good economic times, than in poorer economic times. 8) OTHER JOB ATTITUDES: JOB INVOLMENT Job Involment is defined as the extent to which a person psychologically identifies with his/her job. Jobs occupy a central role in job-involved people’s lives. Any change in one’s employment conditions or status can seriously affect one’s psychological well-being and self-esteem. An employee who works overtime to finish a project, or one who takes pride in work accomplishments, are highly job-involved people. Job involvement is a relatively stable personal characteristic based in personal value orientations. Thus, it is less evoked by environmental factors, and conceptually distinct from job satisfaction. Lodahl & Kejner (1965) developed a 20-item scale of job involvement measurement; it is most widely used measure. Value-orientation items may be more or less important than situational items in defining job involvement. Correlates of job involvement, show pretty much the same magnitude as job satisfaction: ¤ Older workers report higher levels of job involvement ¤ No sex differences ¤ Highly involved workers are less apt to be absent from work or quit their jobs 9) ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT: Is defined as a worker’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization Embodies 3 concepts: 1. Readiness to exert effort on behalf of the organization 2. Acceptance of organizational goals and values 3. Desire to remain with the organization It is thought to be more global and enduring than job satisfaction. Organizational commitment refers to employee attitudes about the whole organization and therefore is probably less influenced by daily events (e.g., disagreement with the supervisor). Like the highly involved worker, the highly committed worker takes his/her job seriously. However, loyalty of the highly committed worker resides with the organization, and not the job or work. Generally, the most commonly measured dimensions are: · Affective or attitudinal dimension: emotional attachment to and involvement and identification with the organization. Positively correlated with job performance · Continuance commitment: behavioral dimension; it is the perceived costs associated with leaving the organization (e.g., pension plans).Negatively correlated with job performance. Job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment are distinct, independent constructs, although they do overlap in a lot of research designs .Job satisfaction is the one that is mostly researched. The future holds great promise on multiple attitudes integration. What is the meaning of job involvement?Job involvement has been defined as internalizing values of “goodness and importance of working” among people. It is a subjective condition that makes people devoted to their work (1). It is a desirable feature that makes people spend energy and do their best in their work and organizational roles (2).
What is the meaning of job satisfaction?Job satisfaction is defined as the level of contentment employees feel with their job. This goes beyond their daily duties to cover satisfaction with team members/managers, satisfaction with organizational policies, and the impact of their job on employees' personal lives.
What is job involvement level?the degree to which a person psychologically identifies with his or her job. A person who has a high level of job involvement usually obtains major life satisfaction from the job.
What is job involvement example?Some examples of employee involvement include:
quality control circles. flatter organizational structures. labor management problem solving efforts. employee problem solving task forces and teams.
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