Which of the following best explains the social dislocations experience by much of Europe in the 19 century?

• Introduction

• • Paleolithic settlement
    • Earliest developments
    • Upper Paleolithic developments
  • Mesolithic adaptations
  • The Neolithic Period
    • The adoption of farming
    • The late Neolithic Period
      • Agricultural intensification
      • Social change
    • The Indo-Europeans

• • The chronology of the Metal Ages
  • General characteristics
    • The Copper Age
    • The Bronze Age
    • The Iron Age
  • Social and economic developments
    • Control over resources
    • Changing centres of wealth
    • Prestige and status
    • The relationship between nature and culture
    • Rituals, religion, and art
  • The people of the Metal Ages

• • Greeks
  • Romans
  • Barbarian migrations and invasions
    • The Germans and Huns
    • The reconfiguration of the empire

• • The idea of the Middle Ages
    • The term and concept before the 18th century
    • Enlightenment scorn and Romantic admiration
    • The Middle Ages in modern historiography
  • Chronology
  • Late antiquity: the reconfiguration of the Roman world
    • The organization of late imperial Christianity
    • Kings and peoples
    • The great commission
    • The bishops of Rome
    • The Mediterranean world divided
  • The Frankish ascendancy
    • The Merovingian dynasty
    • Charlemagne and the Carolingian dynasty
    • Carolingian decline and its consequences
  • Growth and innovation
    • Demographic and agricultural growth
    • Technological innovations
    • Urban growth
  • Reform and renewal
  • The consequences of reform
    • The transformation of thought and learning
    • The structure of ecclesiastical and devotional life
      • Ecclesiastical organization
      • Devotional life
    • From persuasion to coercion: The emergence of a new ecclesiastical discipline
    • Christianity, Judaism, and Islam
  • From territorial principalities to territorial monarchies
    • The office and person of the king
    • Instruments of royal governance
    • The three orders
  • Crisis, recovery, and resilience: Did the Middle Ages end?

• • The Italian Renaissance
    • Urban growth
    • Wars of expansion
    • Italian humanism
      • Growth of literacy
      • Language and eloquence
      • The humanities
      • Classical scholarship
      • Arts and letters
    • Renaissance thought
  • The northern Renaissance
    • Political, economic, and social background
    • Northern humanism
    • Christian mystics
    • The growth of vernacular literature
  • Renaissance science and technology

• • Economy and society
    • The economic background
    • Demographics
    • Trade and the “Atlantic revolution”
    • Prices and inflation
    • Landlords and peasants
    • Protoindustrialization
    • Growth of banking and finance
    • Political and cultural influences on the economy
    • Aspects of early modern society
  • Politics and diplomacy
    • The state of European politics
      • Discovery of the New World
      • Nation-states and dynastic rivalries
      • Turkey and eastern Europe
    • Reformation and Counter-Reformation
    • Diplomacy in the age of the Reformation
    • The Wars of Religion
    • The Thirty Years’ War
      • The crisis in Germany
      • The crisis in the Habsburg lands
      • The triumph of the Catholics, 1619–29
      • The crisis of the war, 1629–35
      • The European war in Germany, 1635–45
      • Making peace, 1645–48
      • Problems not solved by the war
      • Problems solved by the war

• • Order from disorder
  • The human condition
    • Population
    • Climate
    • War
    • Health and sickness
    • Poverty
  • The organization of society
    • Corporate society
    • Nobles and gentlemen
    • The bourgeoisie
    • The peasantry
  • The economic environment
    • Innovation and development
    • Early capitalism
    • The old industrial order
  • Absolutism
    • Sovereigns and estates
    • Major forms of absolutism
      • France
      • The empire
      • Prussia
    • Variations on the absolutist theme
      • Sweden
      • Denmark
      • Spain
      • Portugal
      • Britain
      • Holland
      • Russia
  • The Enlightenment
    • Sources of Enlightenment thought
    • The role of science and mathematics
    • The influence of Locke
    • The proto-Enlightenment
    • History and social thought
    • The language of the Enlightenment
    • Man and society
    • The Encyclopédie
    • Rousseau and his followers
    • The Aufklärung
    • The Enlightenment throughout Europe

• • The Industrial Revolution
    • Economic effects
    • Social upheaval
  • The age of revolution
    • The French Revolution
    • The Napoleonic era
    • The conservative reaction
    • The Revolutions of 1848
  • Romanticism and Realism
    • The legacy of the French Revolution
      • Cultural nationalism
      • Simplicity and truth
      • Populism
      • Nature of the changes
      • Napoleon’s influence
    • General character of the Romantic movement
    • Romanticism in literature and the arts
      • Drama
      • Painting
      • Sculpture and architecture
      • Music
      • Self-analysis
  • Early 19th-century social and political thought
    • Postrevolutionary thinking
    • The principle of evolution
    • Science
    • Early 19th-century philosophy
      • Kant
      • Kant’s disciples
    • Religion and its alternatives
      • Scientific positivism
      • The cult of art
    • The middle 19th century
    • Realism and Realpolitik
      • Scientific materialism
      • Victorian morality
      • The advance of democracy
    • Realism in the arts and philosophy
      • Literature
      • Painting and sculpture
      • Popular art
      • Music
      • Summary
  • A maturing industrial society
    • The “second industrial revolution”
    • Modifications in social structure
    • The rise of organized labour and mass protests
    • Conditions in eastern Europe
  • The emergence of the industrial state
    • Political patterns
    • Changes in government functions
    • Reform and reaction in eastern Europe
    • Diplomatic entanglements
    • The scramble for colonies
    • Prewar diplomacy
  • Modern culture
    • Symbolism and Impressionism
    • Aestheticism
    • Naturalism
    • The new century
      • Arts and Crafts movement
      • New trends in technology and science
      • The social sciences
      • Reexamination of the universe
    • The prewar period

• • The Great War and its aftermath
    • The shock of World War I
    • The mood of Versailles
  • The interwar years
    • Hopes in Geneva
    • The lottery in Weimar
    • The impact of the slump
    • The trappings of dictatorship
    • The phony peace
  • The blast of World War II
  • Postwar Europe
    • Planning the peace
    • The United States to the rescue
    • A climate of fear
    • Affluence and its underside
    • The reflux of empire
  • Ever closer union?

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